18.05.2015PECULIARITIES OF MANIPULATION TECHNIQUES IN POLITICAL TEXTS
PhD, Associate Professor of the Department of Applied Sociology,
Yerevan State University, Armenia
The language used for political communication, as integral part of the political culture of the given society, has its peculiarities. There is a common understanding that political language can be viewed as a natural code of the political culture, which allows accessing almost all of its areas and layers. In addition, the language works to some extent as a tool to provide for and maintain the necessary information level of the society.
Political text is the most widespread form of delivering political information and political communication, which refers to political issues and is directed to mass audience1. Types of political text include political ads, slogans, fliers, political speeches, articles, publications, information articles, programs, news, etc.
The main purpose of the political texts is to exert influence over public opinion regarding political processes, distribution of political forces, political matters, events and images.2
The scientific discipline that studies the role of language in propaganda and manipulation of consciousness was established by Harold Lasswell, an American sociologist and political scientist. The results of his investigation conducted during the World War I were presented in his 1927 book Propaganda Technique in the World War. 3 He developed a semantic analysis of texts, special methods for using words for delivering or distorting the meanings.4 Lasswell, in essence, created a single integrated system, which was based on political myths creation principles through specially selected appropriate words.
Every political text is aimed at a certain objective and its development and tricks used in it are unique, but a number of common techniques used to create persuasive texts can be distinguished.5
“Black-and-white fallacy” or false dichotomy. This represents the “either, or” (zero-sum) option and no consensus-based alternatives are presented.
Negative spiraling argument Ramifications of insignificant changes are groundlessly exaggerated and global catastrophe scale is attributed to them. Worded differently, this is the “tempest in a teapot” approach.
False precision fallacy. This technique includes presenting numbers, statistical data to prove a statement, when they are untrue, or valid facts are creatively dismissed by non-existent statistical data and figures taken out of thin air.
Conventional knowledge appeal trap. For example, “as everybody contends …”, “needless to say...”, “we have all already agreed that…”, “today everyone knows…”, “it has been already proved that...", "it is obvious that…” .
Assuring one’s beliefs, using personal authority. For example, “I assure you that…”, “I have already had the chance to realize that…”, “there is absolutely no doubt that…”.
Divisions and enemy image. The system of worldview is divided in two: “us” and “them”, whereby “them” are automatically transformed into enemies. “Us” are described as unconditionally good and “them” as unquestionably negative. The essence of text content is formed around a single expression which suggests threat for the good ones. For example, “the current leadership is corrupt”. The world is perceived as black and white: “us” are “good”, while “them” are “scums and scoundrels”.
Overgeneralized blaming. To amplify a statement the innocents can be blamed inclusively. For example, blaming bureaucrats, “thickheaded law enforcers”, foreigners, etc.
Over-emotional appeals. Clear matters are turned into emotional ones through crude contradictions. For example, “and the bureaucrats will be rolling on the floor laughing out loud at you”. In propaganda methods emotional and emotionalized theses are used, with the entire argumentation focused on them.
Attributing future actions. The opponents are attributed with violent actions that they are allegedly ready to perpetrate, if not now, then in near future.6
The Red Herring. Attention is diverted from the original issue, thus leading attention away from the main topic of the argument.7
Glittering Generalities. These are emotionally appealing phrases so closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs that they carry conviction without supporting information or reason. Powerful words and phrases are used, such as freedom, patriotism, courage, hope and reform.8
Loaded Language. These are words that attempt to influence an audience by using appeal to emotion. They have strongly positive or negative connotations, leading to certain conclusions. Loaded words and phrases include “boo!” and “hurrah!” versions to distinguish the negative and positive emotional context. This is also considered as a brainwashing technique.9
Manipulative techniques used in political texts are numerous. They can differ in impact power, result and content. A. Altunyan refers to the following techniques in his book “An Analysis of Political Texts”10:
1. Repetition: if a message is repeated periodically, over the time it will be accepted or reinforced in the target audience’s consciousness.
2. Use of quotation marks to indicate irony: this method is mostly used in political texts to emphasize opponent’s deficiencies or to form one’s own style. For instance, the US president Richard Nixon was known to popularize the phrase “silent majority”, which could be easily considered a rhetoric feature or formal technique, but every such phrase has a specific political/social context behind it, which although not pronounced, but is well understood by the audience in the meaning and relevant overtone embedded in it beforehand.
3. Using capital letters: with this the authors emphasize the valuable symbols, notions significant for the audience. For example, using the phrase “Armenia World” underscores that the audience belong to Armenia and has a personal interest in being part of the homeland.
4. Parallel and opposite constructs: for example, “Armenia” and implied social problems, or a powerful, developed country versus other countries, “West vs. totalitarian countries that violate human rights”.
The list of techniques used in political contexts examined herein is in no way comprehensive. The main peculiarity of the mentioned techniques is their manipulative nature, through which the political texts create an illusory reality to substitute the actual model of the political world. No matter how free or democratic the modern societies pretend to be, their stability and sway largely depend on a well-developed and effective manipulation system.
1 Алтунян А.Г., Анализ политических текстов, Москва, Логос, 2010, с. 15.
2 Черепанова И.Ю., Заговор Народа: Как создать сильный политический текст, Москва, КСП+, 2002, с. 9.
3 See: Lasswell H.D., Propaganda Technique in the World War, London. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co, Lid New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927.
4 Political semantics explores how people understand slogans and concepts, main political terms and notions (see: Психология лидерства, влияния, власти, В.П. Шейнов, 2-е изд., Минск, Харвест, 2008).
5 Черепанова И.Ю., Заговор Народа: Как создать сильный политический текст, Москва, КСП+, 2002, с. 11.
6 Бредемайер К., Черная риторика: Власть и магия слова, 6-е изд., Москва, Альпина бизнес букс, 2008, с. 90-117.
7 Riker W.H., The Art of Political Manipulation, New Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1986, p. 85-88.
8 Ibid
9 Ibid
10Алтунян А.Г., Анализ политических текстов, Москва, Логос, 2010, с. 218-220.
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